Cleopatra VII | Cleopatra Philopator | The Macedonian Dynasty in Egypt

• 16 / 5 / 2023

Cleopatra VII or Cleopatra for short (70/69 August 10, 30 BC), was Queen of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt from 51 to 30 BC and the last of its kings. Cleopatra belongs to the Ptolemaic dynasty and goes back in her lineage to the founder of the dynasty Ptolemy I, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great. Egypt turned into a province of the Roman Empire after the death of Cleopatra, and this event marked the end of the last Hellenistic state in the Mediterranean founded as a result of the disintegration of the Macedonian Empress. It is worth noting that Cleopatra's native language was mixed vernacular Greek, the only known Ptolemaic queen who mastered the Egyptian language.

It is believed that Cleopatra accompanied her father Ptolemy XII when he was exiled to Rome in 58 BC after a revolt in Egypt, which was then a Roman province, Bernice IV was killed in 55 BC when Ptolemy XII returned to Egypt with Roman military assistance.

Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII jointly took over the reign after the death of Ptolemy XII in 51 BC, however, their relationship deteriorated and the quarrel between them turned into an open civil war. The Roman statesman Pompeius fled in 48 BC to Egypt after being defeated at the Battle of Pharsalus in Greece against his rival Julius Caesar (Roman dictator and consul) in Caesar's civil war. Pompey was a political ally of Ptolemy XII, but Ptolemy XIII on the advice of his courtiers, ambushed Pompey and assassinated him before Caesar arrived and occupied Alexandria.

Caesar made efforts to mediate and reconcile the feuding Ptolemaic siblings after Pompey's murder, but Bothinus saw that the terms Caesar proposed for reconciliation were biased in favor of Cleopatra, so he ordered his troops to besiege Cleopatra and Caesar in the royal palace. Shortly after the siege was broken up by reinforcements, Ptolemy XIII was killed in the Battle of the Nile, and Cleopatra's half-sister Arsinoe IV was exiled to Ephesus for her role in carrying out the siege. Following these events, Caesar declared Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIV joint rulers, however, Caesar maintained a special relationship with Cleopatra and she bore him her son (Caesarion). Between 46 and 44 BC Cleopatra traveled to Rome and stayed at Caesar's Villa. After Caesar's assassination, followed shortly thereafter by the murder of Ptolemy XIV (on her orders) in 44 BC Cleopatra appointed her son Caesarion co-ruler as Ptolemy XV.

Cleopatra sided with the second Roman triumvirate government formed by Octavian (Caesar's grandson and heir), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus during the Civil War of the Liberators from 43 to 42 BC. Cleopatra had an affair with Antony after they met in Tarsus in 41 BC, who executed Arsinoe IV at her request and became increasingly dependent on Cleopatra for funding During the donations of Alexandria, the Sons of Cleopatra and Mark Antony: Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II, and Ptolemy Philadelphus were proclaimed rulers of various territories that had previously been under the authority of Antony the triumvirate. This event, along with the marriage of Cleopatra and Mark Antony and Antony's divorce from Octavia Minor (Octavian's sister), led to the outbreak of the final war of the Roman Republic. Octavian engaged in a propaganda war, forced Antony's allies in the Roman Senate to flee Rome in 32 BC, and declared war on Cleopatra. After the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra's naval fleet at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian's troops invaded Egypt in 30 BC, which led to Antony's defeat and subsequent suicide. when Cleopatra learned that Octavian was planning to bring her to the Roman victory parade, she killed herself with poison, contrary to popular belief that she was bitten by a viper.

Cleopatra's legacy is still present in ancient and modern works of art. Roman historiography and Latin poetry produced a view generally critical of her as a queen, a perspective that continued to influence later medieval and Renaissance literature. Her image has been immortalized in the visual arts throughout history which includes her ancient portraits, busts, paintings, Roman sculptures, glass engravings, Ptolemaic and Roman coins, and bas-reliefs. Cleopatra in Renaissance and Baroque art was the subject of many works including operas, paintings, poetry, sculptures, and theatrical dramas, became a popular cultural symbol of Egyptomania in the Victorian era, appeared in modern times in Applied and Fine Arts, comic satire, Hollywood films, and in brand images of some products.

A Brief History,

The Egyptian high priest of Ptah in Memphis was crowning the Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty, but their actual residence is in the largely Multicultural Greek city of Alexandria founded by Alexander the Great of Macedon. The Ptolemies spoke Greek and ruled Egypt just like the Hellenistic Greek kings, refusing to learn the native Egyptian language. Cleopatra, on the other hand, could speak multiple languages by the age of majority and was the first Ptolemaic King to learn the Egyptian language.

The Greek philosopher and historian Plutarch mentioned that Cleopatra was fluent in several languages such as Meroitic, Hebrew (or Aramaic), Arabic, Syriac (most likely Syriac), Medes, Parthian, and Latin as well, although her Roman contemporaries preferred to speak with her in mixed vernacular Greek, which is her native language. Apart from Greek, Egyptian, and Latin, these languages reflected Cleopatra's desire to restore the regions of North Africa and western Asia that once belonged to the Ptolemaic Kingdom.

The Roman intervention in Egypt was preceded by the reign of Cleopatra. When Ptolemy IX died in late 81 bc, he was succeeded by his daughter Berenice III. The Roman dictator Sulla saw growing hostility at the royal court to the idea of a single queen ruling, so he arranged for Berenice III to share the reign with her cousin and stepson Ptolemy Xi and marry him.

Ptolemy Xi killed his third wife Bernice in 80 BC shortly after their marriage, which led to violent riots, after which the angry crowd executed Ptolemy XI without trial as a result of this act. Ptolemy XI before his death (probably together with his uncle Ptolemy IX or his father Ptolemy X) formulated a plan to make the Ptolemaic Kingdom a vassal of Rome as collateral for loans, which gave the Romans legal justification for assuming control of Egypt after the death of Ptolemy Xi. However, the Romans chose to divide the Ptolemaic Kingdom among the illegitimate sons of Ptolemy IX, giving Cyprus to Ptolemy of Cyprus and Egypt to Ptolemy XII (Cleopatra's father).

Cleopatra VII was born in early 69 BC to the ruling Ptolemaic Pharaoh Ptolemy XII and an unidentified mother, most likely Cleopatra V (possibly the same Cleopatra VI Tryphaena), who also gave birth to Cleopatra's older sister Brenniki IV. The name Cleopatra Tryphaena disappeared from official records in 69 BC a few months after the birth of Cleopatra. The three youngest children of Ptolemy XII (Cleopatra's brothers) are Arsenoi IV, Ptolemy XIII, and Ptolemy XIV and all of them were born in the absence of his wife (that is, the couple was probably separated at that time). Cleopatra was educated in her childhood by her teacher Philostratus, who taught her the art of rhetoric and Greek philosophy. It is believed that Cleopatra pursued her studies during her youth in the ancient Alexandria Museum, which was then part of the Library of Alexandria.

The Roman censor Marcus Licinius Crassus in 65 BC before the Roman Senate called for the annexation of Ptolemaic Egypt, but his proposed bill was rejected, and a similar bill was rejected by the Tribune Servilius rullus in 63 BC. In response to the looming threat of annexation of Ptolemaic Egypt, Ptolemy XII, the then-ruler of Egypt, took measures to block the accession by offering generous bonuses and gifts to please influential Roman statesmen and win their support, one example of this was Pompeius, who received these incentives during his military campaign against Mithradates VI, and Caesar also received bonuses after he took the post of Roman consul in 59 BC. Eventually, Ptolemy XII's reckless behavior caused him to go bankrupt, so he was forced to take loans from the Roman banker Gaius Rabirius Postumus.

The Romans annexed Cyprus in 58 BC, and on accusations of piracy, they forced Ptolemy of Cyprus (brother of Ptolemy XII) to commit suicide rather than exile him to Paphos. Ptolemy XII publicly kept silent about the death of his brother, a decision that damaged his credibility among his subjects who were already outraged by his economic policies, along with his cession of traditional Ptolemaic lands to the Romans. Later Ptolemy XII was forcibly exiled from Egypt, he traveled first to Rhodes, then to Athens, and finally settled in a Roman country house owned by the Triarch Pompeius located in the Alban hills near Palestrina in Italy.

Ptolemy XII stayed on the outskirts of Rome for about a year, accompanied by his daughter Cleopatra, who was then almost 11 years old. During this period, Berenice IV (Ptolemy XII's daughter from a previous marriage) sent ambassadors to Rome to defend her right to rule and oppose the reinstatement of her father, so Ptolemy XII resorted to hiring assassins to assassinate ambassadors, a crime covered up by his influential Roman supporters. When the Roman Senate refused his request for an armed escort and supplies for the return trip to Egypt, Ptolemy XII decided to leave Rome in late 57 BC and settled in the temple of Artemis in Ephesus.

Roman bankers under Ptolemy XII and loyal to him insisted on his return to power. Pompey tried hard to convince Aulus Gabinius, the Roman governor of Syria, to invade Egypt and reinstall Ptolemy XII and offered him the sum of 10,000 talons to implement the proposal. Although this invasion was contrary to Roman law, in the spring of 55 BC gabinius attacked Egypt through the territory controlled by the Hasmonean dynasty, and Hyrcanus II (King of the Hasmonean dynasty) arranged with Antipater the Edomite (father of Herod the Great) to supply the army with the necessary supplies. Mark Antony was a young cavalry officer under the command of Aulus Gabinius, who strengthened his reputation as a brave soldier when he prevented Ptolemy XII from carrying out a massacre of the inhabitants of the city of Pelosion, saved the body of Archelaus (archpriest and husband of Berenice IV) who was killed in battle and buried it with a proper royal ceremony. The then 14-year-old Cleopatra likely accompanied the Roman expedition to Egypt, Antony admitted years later that he fell in love with her at this time.

Gabinius was put on trial in Rome on charges of abuse of power, but was eventually acquitted, later he was put on trial for a second time on charges of accepting bribes, which led to his exile. After spending seven years in exile, Caesar finally recalled him in 48 BC. Crassus replaced him as governor of Syria and expanded his regional command to Egypt, but he was killed by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Ptolemy XII ordered the execution of Berenice IV and her wealthy allies and confiscated their property, allowed the military garrison of Gabinius consisting of members of the Germanic and Gallic people to harass people on the streets of Alexandria and appointed his friend, the Roman banker Gaius rabirius Postumus, whom he trusted, as his financial manager.

Within a year Postumus was placed under protective custody and sent back to Rome after his life became endangered due to the depletion of resources in Egypt, despite these problems, Ptolemy XII drafted a will in which he declared both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII to be his heirs, supervised major construction projects such as the Edfu temple and another temple in Dendera, and worked to stabilize the economy. On May 31, 52 BC, Cleopatra became the Regent of Ptolemy XII, this is evidenced by an inscription discovered in the temple of Hathor in Dendera. Postumus was unable to fully collect the debts of Ptolemy XII by the time of the latter's death, as a result of which Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII inherited these debts.

Accession to the throne

Ptolemy XII died sometime before March 22, 51 BC. Shortly after taking office, Cleopatra set off on a trip to the city of Arment, located near Thebes, to participate in the inauguration ceremonies of the bull of bochis, a sacred entity revered as the mediator of the God Minto in ancient Egyptian religion. Cleopatra faced many pressing and emergency issues shortly after taking the throne, including severe famine caused by drought, the low level of the annual Nile floods, lawless behavior and anarchy instigated by the Gabiniani fighters, unemployed Roman soldiers left by Aulus Gabinius to Garrison Egypt. Cleopatra inherited her father's debts, she owed the Roman Republic in the amount of 17.5 million drachmas.

Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus sent the governor of Syria and his two eldest sons to Egypt in 50 BC, most likely to negotiate with the Gabiniani and recruit them for the desperate defense of Syria against the Parthians. But the Gabiniani arrested, tortured, and eventually killed them, probably with the secret support of high-ranking rogue officials of Cleopatra's court. Cleopatra caught the Gabiniani perpetrators and sent them to Bibulus as prisoners waiting for him to pass sentence on them, but Bibulus returned them to Cleopatra and scolded her for interfering in their case being the prerogative of the Roman Senate. Bibulus, who sided with Pompeius in Caesar's civil war, failed to prevent Caesar from landing a naval fleet in Greece, eventually allowing Caesar to reach Egypt to pursue Pompeius.

Official records began referring to Cleopatra as the sole ruler by August 29, 51 BC, indicating her refusal to co-rule with her brother Ptolemy III. She likely married him, but no one proves this in the records. Sibling marriage became a common Ptolemaic custom during the reign of Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe II, the ancient Greeks hated this ancient Egyptian royal custom, but by the era of Cleopatra, it was perceived as a typical custom of the Ptolemaic Kings.

Despite Cleopatra's refusal to recognize him as co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII maintained a strong support base, especially among influential figures such as Bothinus his mentor, Guardian, and manager of his childhood Estates. Some influential figures also conspired against Cleopatra, such as Achilles, a prominent military commander, and Theodotus, another mentor of Ptolemy XIII. Cleopatra briefly tried to ally with her other brother Ptolemy XIV, but by the fall of 50 BC, Ptolemy XIII gained the upper hand in the power struggle, so he began to sign documents in his name before Cleopatra's name and established the first date for the beginning of his reign in 49 BC, indicating his growing power and control over the kingdom.

Cleopatra and her troops in the summer of 49 BC were still fighting against Ptolemy XIII inside Alexandria, during this time Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompeius) arrived appealing for military assistance on behalf of his father. Caesar returned to Italy in January 49 BC, having finished his campaigns in Gaul and crossed the Rubicon, Pompeius and his supporters were forced to flee to Greece. Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII (probably in their last joint decree) agreed to Gnaeus Pompeius ' request and sent his father 60 ships and 500 soldiers, including the group of fighters (Gabiniani), a move that helped erase some of the debts owed to Rome. Cleopatra, after losing the fight against her brother, was forced to flee Alexandria and retreat to the Thebes region. By the spring of 48 BC, she traveled to Roman Syria with her younger sister Arsinoe IV to mobilize a military force and take it back to Egypt, but her brother's troops prevented her from advancing toward Alexandria, including some of the Gabiniani fighters mobilized to fight against her, as a result of which Cleopatra set up camp outside pelusioni in the eastern Nile Delta.

The troops of Caesar and Pompey clashed on August 9, 48 BC in the decisive battle of Pharsalus in Greece, this violent confrontation resulted in a devastating defeat for Pompey's army, forcing him to withdraw and forcibly flee to the city of Tyre, Lebanon. Pompey decided to take refuge in Egypt due to his close ties with the ruling Ptolemaic dynasty, believing that he could regroup his troops and get support there. However, Ptolemy XIII's advisers feared that Pompeius would use Egypt as his base in a long-term Roman Civil War, so Theodotus devised a plan to assassinate Pompeius and sent him a letter inviting him to come, and when Pompeius arrived on September 28, 48 BC on a ship and when approaching pelusionus, he was ambushed and stabbed to death. Ptolemy XIII (in an attempt to show his strength and defuse the crisis) sent the severed and mummified head of Pompeius to Caesar, who arrived in Alexandria in early October and stayed in the royal palace. Caesar expressed his grief and anger at the murder of Pompey and called on both Ptolemy XIII and Cleopatra to disband their forces and reconcile with each other.

The Relationship between Julius Caesar and Cleopatra 

Ptolemy XIII arrived in Alexandria at the head of his army, defying Caesar's order to disband the army and leave with his troops before his arrival. At first, Cleopatra sent envoys to Caesar, and after he informed her that he was inclined to have affairs with royal women, she traveled to Alexandria to see him in person. According to the historian Cassius Dio, she resolved to go on this journey without informing her brother, dressed elegantly, and charmed Caesar with her intelligence. The historian Plutarch mentions a completely different version in which he says that Cleopatra was hidden inside a bag and secretly fled to the palace to meet Caesar.

When Ptolemy XIII learned that his sister Cleopatra was inside the palace with Caesar, he sought to provoke the inhabitants of Alexandria and push them to riot and unrest, but Caesar arrested him and used his persuasive oratorical skills to calm the angry crowd, later Caesar called both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII to appear before the Council of Alexandria, revealing a hidden written will of their father Ptolemy XII (previously in the possession of Pompeius) then Caesar tried to arrange for the other brothers Arsinoe IV and Ptolemy XIV to jointly rule Cyprus, thereby displacing potential rival claimants to the Egyptian throne And to appease the Ptolemaic subjects, who were heartbroken by the loss of Cyprus to the Romans in 58 BC.

Bothinus felt that this commandment favored Cleopatra over Ptolemy XIII, so he decided to form a military force to march to Alexandria and fight both Caesar and Cleopatra, and installed Achilles as the commander of these forces, it is likely that Ptolemy XIII's army of 20 thousand soldiers, including the Gabiniani fighters, could defeat Caesar's army of 4,000 unsupported soldiers, but Caesar arrested bothinus and executed him, so the course of events changed, then arsenoy IV allied with Achilleas was installed as Queen, and soon after her mentor Ganymedes killed the commander Achilleas and installed himself in his place as commander of the army of Arsinoe IV. Ganymedes later used a clever ruse to deceive Caesar, asking him to allow the then-captive Ptolemy XIII to come and participate in the negotiations, but his real purpose was to convince Ptolemy XIII to join the army of Arsenoi IV. And already Ptolemy XIII betrayed Caesar's trust and joined the army of Arsenoi IV. This turn of events prolonged the siege of the palace, in which both Cleopatra and Caesar were trapped together, this siege lasted until 47 BC.

Military reinforcements arrived to support Caesar sometime between January and March of 47 BC, including troops commanded by Mithridates of Pergamon and Antipater the Edomite. Ptolemy XIII and Arsenios IV withdrew their forces to the Nile River when Caesar began to attack them, Ptolemy XIII boarded a boat in a desperate attempt to escape, but it capsized and sank. Ganymede was most likely killed in this battle, theodotus was found years later in Asia by Marcus Junius Brutus and executed, Arsinoe IV was captured and sent to Rome to forcibly participate in Caesar's victory parade in Rome and later exiled to the temple of Artemis in Ephesus. Cleopatra was conspicuously absent from these events and a resident of the palace, most likely because she had been pregnant with Caesar's child since September 48 BC. Caesar's term as consul ended at the end of 48 BC.M. However, Antony, who was one of his officers, contributed to the appointment of Caesar to the post of dictator, which he held for almost a year (until October 47 BC), giving Caesar the legal authority to settle the family dispute in Egypt. Fearing a repeat of the previous mistake he made with Brenniki IV (Cleopatra's sister), who ruled as the only female monarch, Caesar was more cautious this time, appointing the 12-year-old Ptolemy XIV (Cleopatra's brother) as co-ruler, and arranged for him to marry the 22-year-old Cleopatra in a symbolic marriage. However, Cleopatra continued to stay especially with Caesar. The exact date when Cyprus returned to Cleopatra's control is unknown, although she was appointed a ruler there by 42 BC.

Caesar installs Cleopatra Queen on the throne of Egypt.

Allegedly Caesar joined Cleopatra on a cruise across the Nile to see Egyptian monuments, this romantic story may reflect the inclinations of later wealthy Romans and not necessarily be a real historical event. The historian Suetonius gave many details about this voyage, including the use of the thalamigos, a pleasure barge built by Ptolemy IV that was 90 meters (300 ft) long and 24 meters (80 ft) high.it contained dining rooms, official rooms, sacred shrines and parks on its two floors and was more like a floating villa. It is possible that Caesar's interest in the Nile journey was due to his passion for geography; he read well the works of Eratosthenes and Pythias, and probably wanted to discover the source of the Nile, but returned before he reached Ethiopia.

Caesar left Egypt around April 47 BC on the pretext of confronting Pharnaces II, King of Pontus, son of Mithridates VI, who was causing problems for Rome in Anatolia. It is likely that Caesar (married to the prominent Roman woman Calpurnia) also sought to avoid appearing with Cleopatra when she gave birth to their son. Caesar left three Legions in Egypt, later increased to four, and these legions were placed under the command of the Freedman Rufio, to protect Cleopatra's unstable situation, and perhaps also to keep her activities under control and control.

Caesarion was born the alleged child of Cleopatra and Caesar on June 23, 47 BC and was originally named (Pharaoh Caesar) as documented on a witness found in the Serapeum in Saqqara. Caesar refrained (probably due to his marriage to Calpurnia who bore him no children at that point) from making public statements about Caesarion (but probably admitted his lineage in private dialogues). Cleopatra, on the other hand, made frequent official statements about Caesarion's parentage, and she always explicitly referred to Caesar as the father of the child.

Cleopatra and her nominal co-ruler Ptolemy XIV visited Rome sometime in late 46 BC, probably without Caesarion, and were granted residence in Caesar's villa located within the Horti of Caesarea, Caesar granted both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIV (as he had done with their father Ptolemy XII before) the legal status of "friend and ally of the Roman people", making them vassal rulers in loyalty to Rome. Among Cleopatra's visitors at Caesar's villa located near the Tiber was the senator Cicero, who found her behavior somewhat arrogant. Sosigenes of Alexandria (a member of Cleopatra's court) played a role in assisting Caesar with the calculations necessary for the implementation of the new Julian calendar, which came into force on January 1, 45 BC. The temple of Venus Genetrix established in the forum of Caesar on September 25, 46 BC had a golden statue of Cleopatra (which stood there until at least the third century AD), this statue directly connected Cleopatra with the goddess Venus, who was considered the mother of the Roman people. In addition, the statue connected the Egyptian goddess Isis with the Roman religion.

Cleopatra's presence in Rome most likely influenced the events that took place at the Lupercalia festival, which was held a month before Caesar's assassination. During the festival, Antony tried to put a royal wreath on Caesar's head, but the latter refused in what was most likely a theatrical performance, perhaps intended to assess how receptive the Roman public was to the idea of embracing a Hellenistic-style monarchy. Cicero, who was present at the festival, sarcastically inquired about the origin of the diadem, clearly referring to the Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra, whom he detested.

Caesar was assassinated in mid-March (March 15, 44 BC.M.), However, Cleopatra remained resident in Rome until about mid-April in the desperate hope of gaining recognition of Caesarion as heir to Caesar's throne. However, Caesar's will indicated his grandson Octavian as the primary heir. Octavian then arrived in Italy around the same time that Cleopatra decided to return to Egypt. A few months later, Cleopatra killed her brother Ptolemy XIV with poison and raised her son Caesarion to be her co-ruler.

Cleopatra in the Civil War of the freedom

Octavian, Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC, each elected for a five-year term to restore order in the Republic and bring Caesar's murderers to justice. It was during this time that Cleopatra received letters from Gaius Cassius Longinus (one of Caesar's assassins) and Publius Cornelius Dolabella, the governor of Syria and loyal to the Caesars, appealing for military assistance. In response, Cleopatra sent a letter to Gaius explaining that her kingdom was facing many internal problems, which made it impossible for her to provide military assistance, while Cleopatra sent the four legions left by Caesar in Egypt to support Dolabella. But Gaius unfortunately managed to capture these troops in Palestine.

Serapion (the ruler of Cyprus under Cleopatra) defected and allied with Gaius and supplied him with ships, Cleopatra sailed her own fleet to Greece with the aim of providing direct support to Octavian and Antony. But her ships were so badly damaged by a storm in the Mediterranean that she arrived too late to help in the fighting. Antony succeeded in defeating Caesar's assassins at the Battle of Philippi in Greece by the autumn of 42 BC, which eventually led to the suicides of Gaius and Marcus Junius Brutus.

Octavian by the end of 42 BC controlled much of the western half of the Roman Republic while Antony controlled the eastern half, largely marginalizing the role of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony in the summer of 41 BC established his headquarters in Tarsus in Anatolia and summoned Cleopatra there and sent her several letters, but each time she refused to come until Antony's envoy Quintus Delius persuaded her to come. This meeting allowed Cleopatra to clarify the misconception about her that she supported Cassius during the Civil War and to address regional exchanges in the Levant, but Antony also undoubtedly wished to form a personal romantic relationship with her. Cleopatra sailed across the kydnos River to Tarsus using the thalamigos (a floating barge), and hosted Antony and his officers for two nights on the ship filled with lavish banquets. Cleopatra successfully exonerated herself, explaining that her real intention was to support Publius Cornelius Dolabella in Syria and not gasius, persuaded Antony to execute her exiled sister Arsinoe IV in Ephesus, and the former rebellious ruler of Cyprus handed over to Cleopatra for execution.

Relationship between Cleopatra and Mark Anthony

Cleopatra extended an invitation to Antony to come to Egypt before she left Tarsus, he accepted the invitation and arrived in Alexandria By November 41 BC. His arrival was warmly received by the people of Alexandria, who held him in high esteem for his heroic efforts in restoring Ptolemy XII to the throne and for coming to Egypt without an occupying force, as Caesar had done. In Egypt, Antony continued to enjoy the lavish royal lifestyle he witnessed on board Cleopatra's ship docked in Tarsus, in addition, he assigned his subordinates, including Publius Ventidius Bassus, the task of expelling the Parthians from Anatolia and Syria.

Cleopatra carefully chose Antony to be her partner in having more heirs, as he was considered the most powerful Roman figure after Caesar's death. Thanks to his powers as a Triarch, Antony also had extensive authority to restore the former Ptolemaic lands that had come under Roman control and return them to Cleopatra. While it is clear that both Cilicia and Cyprus were under Cleopatra's control by November 19, 38 BC, it is likely that the restoration of the territories took place earlier in the winter of 41-40 BC during the period spent with Antony.

Antony left Egypt by the spring of 40 BC due to unrest in Syria, his Governor Lucius decedius Saxa was killed and his army was taken over by Quintus Labienus, a former officer under Gaius who was allied with the Parthian Empire. Cleopatra provided Antony with 200 ships for his campaign and as payment for the newly acquired lands. Cleopatra was not able to see Antony again until 37 BC, but she kept correspondence between them, and evidence suggests that she kept a spy in his camp. Cleopatra gave birth to twins from Antony by the end of 40 BC: a boy named Alexander Helios and a girl named Cleopatra Selene II, and Antony recognized both of them as his sons. The names of their sons Helios (meaning the sun) and Selene (meaning the moon) symbolized the promise of a new era of renewal of society, and these names reflected Cleopatra's desire and hope that Antony would repeat the exploits of Alexander the great and conquer the Parthians.

Mark Antony's Parthian campaign in the East was disrupted by the events of the perusine war (41-40 BC), initiated by his ambitious wife Fulvia against Octavian in the hope of making her husband the undisputed leader of Rome. Some have suggested that Fulvia's motive may have been to distance Antony from Cleopatra, but the conflict emerged in Italy even before Cleopatra's meeting with Antony in Tarsus. Fulvia and Antony's brother Lucius Antonius were eventually besieged by Octavian in perusia (modern Bruges, Italy) and later exiled from Italy, later Fulvia died in sicyon in Greece while trying to reach Antony. Her sudden death led to a reconciliation between Octavian and Antony at Brundisium in Italy in September 40 BC. Although the agreement at Brundisium consolidated Antony's control over the territories of the Roman Republic east of the Ionian Sea, it also provided for Antony's abdication from Italy, Hispania, and Gaul, and marriage to Cleopatra's potential rival Octavia Minor (Octavian's sister).

Fulvia (wife of Mark Antony) presents the severed head of the famous politician and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, who was executed in 43 BC in retaliation for his numerous speeches against Antony.
Cleopatra received Herod in Alexandria in December 40 BC as an unexpected guest and a refugee who had fled the turbulent situation in Judea. Antony had originally appointed Herod quartermaster of the region, but Herod soon found himself in conflict with Antigonus the Hasmonean, a member of the ancient Hasmonean dynasty. The latter had imprisoned Herod's brother and colleague Vasil, who was executed while Herod was on the run and seeking refuge at Cleopatra's court. Cleopatra tried to entrust Herod with a military mission, but Herod refused and traveled to Rome, and there the triumvirate Octavian and Antony appointed him king of Judea. This act put Herod on a collision course with Cleopatra, who wished to regain the former Ptolemaic lands that formed his new Herodian Kingdom.

The relationship between Antony and Cleopatra was likely strained not only because he married Octavia, but also because he had two children with her: Antonia Major in 39 BC, and Antonia Minor in 36 BC, and he moved his residence to Athens. However, Cleopatra's position within Egypt remained stable. Her rival Herod was busy with the civil war in Judea which required heavy Roman military assistance, but he did not receive any help from Cleopatra. The power of Antony and Octavian as triple rulers ended on January 1, 37 BC, so Octavia arranged a meeting in Tarantum, at which the triple power was officially extended to 33 BC.
The kingdom of Palmyra was at its greatest extent in 271 AD. Palmyra included the Roman provinces in the East: Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Syria Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Anatolian regions up to Ankara, and including Galatia.
Antony traveled to Antioch with two legions granted by Octavian and a thousand soldiers loaned by Octavia to begin preparations for war against the Parthians. Antony summoned Cleopatra to Antioch to discuss some pressing issues, including the status of Herod's Kingdom and securing financial support for his upcoming Parthian campaign. Cleopatra, accompanied by her then three-year-old twin children, arrived in Antioch, Anthony saw them for the first time, and it is possible that they received their surnames (Helios) and(Selene) for the first time as part of Antony and Cleopatra's ambitious plans for the future. In order to stabilize the East, Antony not only expanded Cleopatra's Kingdom but also created new ruling dynasties and vassal rulers to remain loyal to him even after his death. According to this arrangement, Cleopatra acquired vast former Ptolemaic territories in the Levant, and this included almost all of Phoenicia (Lebanon) except tyre and Sidon, which remained under Roman control. Cleopatra took possession of Ptolemaic Acre (modern acre), the city established by Ptolemy II. Due to her ancestors ' ties with the Seleucids, Cleopatra was granted the hollow region of Syria along the upper ASI River. Moreover, she acquired the area around Jericho in Palestine but returned this territory to Herod. Cleopatra also granted a part of the Nabataean kingdom around the Gulf of Aqaba on the Red Sea at the expense of the Nabataean King Malichus I (Herod's cousin), including Ilana (Aqaba, Jordan). To the West, Cleopatra was granted Cyrene along the Libyan coast, as well as Itanus and Aulus on the Roman island of Crete. Although Roman officials continued to manage these lands, they enriched the kingdom of Cleopatra and led her to the inauguration of a new era, which is evidenced by her coins in 36 BC.

Antony expanded the Ptolemaic Kingdom by giving up the Roman territories under direct control, Octavian used Antony's actions as a political tool against him and also exploited the then-prevailing sentiment in Rome against empowering a foreign Queen at the expense of their republic. Octavian reinforced the narrative that Antony was neglecting his virtuous Roman wife, Octavia, granting her and his wife Livia Drusilla exceptional privileges. Cornelia Africana (daughter of Scipio Africanus) about 50 years ago became the first living Roman woman to have a statue dedicated to her, followed by Octavia and Livia, whose statues were probably erected in Caesar's forum to rival the statue of Cleopatra erected by Caesar himself. Cleopatra accompanied Antony on his campaign towards the conquest of the Parthian Empire in 36 BC, traveling with him to the Euphrates River. She then returned to Egypt, probably due to the advanced stage of her pregnancy. By the summer of 36 bc, she gave birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus (her third son from Antony).

Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC ended in disaster, primarily due to several factors, the most notable of which was the betrayal of Artavasdes II of Armenia, who defected and switched his allegiance to the Parthians. The campaign resulted in the deaths of nearly 30,000 men, surpassing the losses Crassus had suffered at the Battle of Carrhae, an outcome that Antony hoped to avenge. , Antony finally arrived at leucocum near berytus (Beirut, Lebanon) in December, and had been drinking heavily before the arrival of Cleopatra who returned laden with money and clothing for his exhausted and much-needed troops. Antony wanted to avoid the risks involved in returning to Rome, so he chose to travel with Cleopatra back to Alexandria to see his newborn son.

While Antony was preparing for another Parthian expedition in 35 BC directed this time towards their ally Armenia, Octavia traveled to Athens accompanied by 2,000 soldiers ostensibly to show support for Antony, but the move was most likely part of a scheme devised by Octavian to embarrass Antony for his military losses. Antony received these troops but asked Octavia not to go far east of Athens while he and Cleopatra traveled together to Antioch, however, he abruptly and inexplicably abandoned the military campaign and returned to Alexandria. When Octavia returned to Rome, Octavian portrayed his sister as a victim wronged by Antony, although she refused to leave his house. Octavian's self-confidence increased when he eliminated his rivals in the western regions, including Sextus Pompeius and even Lepidus (the third member of the triumvirate), who was placed under house arrest after the revolt against Octavian in Sicily.

Antony sent his envoy Quintus Delius to Artavasdes II in 34 BC to negotiate an alliance and a possible marriage that would marry the daughter of the Armenian king to Alexander Helios (the son of Antony and Cleopatra). And when Artavasdes II refused this proposal, Antony marched his army to Armenia, defeated the troops of the Armenian king and captured him and the Armenian royal family. Antony held a military parade in Alexandria imitating a display of Roman triumph dressed as Dionysus and entered the city on a chariot to introduce the royal prisoners to Cleopatra, who was sitting on a golden throne atop a silver platform. This performance was severely criticized in Rome as a perversion of ancient Roman customs and rituals that should not be enjoyed by an Egyptian queen, as these ceremonies belonged only to Roman leaders.

At an event held in the gymnasium shortly after the victory parade, Cleopatra dressed up as ISIS and declared herself the Queen of kings and that her son Caesarion was the king of Kings, while her other son Alexander Helios was proclaimed king of Armenia, Medes, and Parthia, in addition, two-year-old Ptolemy Philadelphus was named King of Syria and Cilicia. Cleopatra Selene II was awarded the island of Crete and Cyrene. It is possible that the marriage of Anthony and Cleopatra took place during this ceremony. Later Antony sent a report to Rome requesting ratification of these territorial claims which later became known as the "donations of Alexandria". Octavian sought to publicize this event for propaganda purposes, but two consuls who were supporters of Antony withheld it from public opinion.

Antony and Octavian engaged in a heated propaganda war that lasted for years in late 34 BC. Antony claimed that Octavian had illegally deposed Lepidus from their triumvirate and prevented him from recruiting troops in Italy, while Octavian accused Antony of illegally detaining the king of Armenia, marrying Cleopatra even though he was still married to his sister Octavia, and unfairly claiming that Caesarion was Caesar's heir instead of Octavian. The series of accusations and rumors associated with this propaganda war shaped popular perceptions about Cleopatra starting from the period of Augustan literature and up to the various media of modern times. It was said that Cleopatra brainwashed Mark Antony through the use of magic and sorcery and was an evil character like the Trojan Helen mentioned in one of Homer's novels and destroyed an entire civilization. Pliny The Elder claimed in his book (Natural History) that Cleopatra once dissolved a pearl worth tens of millions of sesterces (a silver coin) in vinegar in order to win a bet at a dinner party. In addition, the claim that Antony had stolen books from the library of Pergamum to replenish the library of Alexandria was later revealed as a fabrication admitted by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus.

Cleopatra's signature was found on a papyrus document dated February 33 BC and later used to wrap a mummy, most likely this document was written by an official authorized to sign for her. The document relates to tax exemptions in Egypt granted to either Quintus Caecilius or Publius canidius Crassus, a former Roman consul and one of Antony's confidants and the commander of his land forces at the Battle of Actium, who wrote at the bottom of the papyrus in different handwriting the phrase "make it happen, or so be it, and it is probably Cleopatra's signature, as it was customary for the Ptolemies to sign documents to avoid forgery.

Octavian accused Antony of trying to undermine Roman freedoms and territorial integrity as a slave of his Eastern Queen (meaning Cleopatra) in a speech to the Roman Senate on the first day of his consulship on January 1, 33 BC. Antony declared Caesarion to be Caesar's true heir in an attempt to weaken Octavian before Antony and Octavian's joint Empire ended on 31 December 33 BC. Gaius sosius and Gnaeus Domitius ahenobarbus, both loyal to Antony, assumed the consulship in 32 BC. The first made a stern speech in which he condemned Octavian, who by that time had become an ordinary citizen without holding any public office, and introduced legislation against him. During the next Senate session, Octavian entered the Senate accompanied by armed guards and made his accusations against the consuls. Fearing this act, the consuls and more than 200 senators supporting Antony fled Rome the next day to side with Antony.

Antony and Cleopatra traveled together to Ephesus in 32 BC, and Cleopatra provided him with 200 out of 800 sea vessels that Antony managed to acquire. Ahinobarbus, who was worried about such a serious turn of events, tried hard to convince Antony to exclude Cleopatra from the military campaign against Octavian. Publius canidius Crassus, on the other hand, made a counter-argument that Cleopatra was financing the war effort and was a very competent Queen. Despite Antony's requests for Cleopatra to return to Egypt, she firmly refused, considering that her participation in this war was necessary to hinder Octavian's progress in Greece, which would enable her to defend Egypt more easily. Cleopatra's insistence on participating in the Battle of Greece led to the defection of such prominent Roman figures as Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Munatius Plancus.

Antony and Cleopatra traveled to Athens during the spring of 32 BC, and Cleopatra persuaded Antony to send Octavia a formal declaration of divorce. As a result, balances gave Octavian advice on the need to take possession of Anthony's will, kept at the festal virgins. Although this act was considered a violation of sacred and legal rights, Octavian forcibly obtained the Will from the temple of Vesta, using it as a useful tool in the propaganda war against Antony and Cleopatra. Octavian highlighted parts of the will, such as the appointment of Caesarion as Caesar's heir, that the donations of Alexandria were legal, That Antony should be buried alongside Cleopatra in Egypt instead of Rome, and that Alexandria would become the new capital of the Roman Republic. And in order to show loyalty to Rome, Octavian decided to start building his own mausoleum on the Campus Martius . Octavian's legal situation improved after he was elected consul in 31 BC. With the public disclosure of Antony's will, Octavian had reason to wage war, and Rome declared war on Cleopatra, not Antony. The legal argument for the war was based less on Cleopatra's land acquisitions, which included the former Roman territories ruled by her children from Antony, and more on the fact that she was providing military support to Antony (who became an ordinary citizen after the end of his triumvirate).

Antony and Cleopatra had a larger fleet than Octavian's, but the naval crews of Antony and Cleopatra were not all well trained, some were probably merchant ships, while Octavian had a fully professional Navy. Antony wanted to cross the Adriatic and besiege Octavian either in Tarn or abrends, but Cleopatra, who was primarily interested in defending Egypt, canceled the decision to attack Italy directly. Antony and Cleopatra established their winter residence in Patras, Greece, and by the spring of 31 BC, they had moved to Actium, located on the southern side of the ambracian Gulf.

Cleopatra and Antony had the support of several allied Kings, including Herod (with whom Cleopatra was in dispute), and due to an earthquake in Judea, Herod was absent from the campaign. Cleopatra and Antony also lost the support of Malekhos I, which had strategic consequences. Antony and Cleopatra suffered several defeats in skirmishes against Octavian near Actium during the summer of 31 BC, and defections of political and military elites to Octavian's camp continued, including Antony's long-time companion Quintus Delius and allied Kings Amyntas of Galatia and deiotarus of Paphlagonia. Some in Antony's camp suggested retreating inland and abandoning the naval conflict, while Cleopatra called for a naval confrontation to keep Octavian's fleet away from Egypt.

On September 2, 31 BC, Octavian's naval forces under Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa met the forces of Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. Cleopatra from her flagship Antonia supervised a fleet of 60 ships stationed at the entrance to the ambracian Gulf, and her ships were stationed at the rear of the fleet. This arrangement was probably coordinated by Antony's officers to reduce her influence during the battle. Antony ordered the ships to raise their sails in order to have a better chance of pursuing or escaping from the enemy, Cleopatra, who had always been interested in the defense of Egypt, liked this idea, took advantage of it to quickly move through the main combat zone and carried out a strategic retreat to the Peloponnese peninsula.

Historian Stanley Burstein stated that biased Roman writers later accused Cleopatra of cowardice because she left Antony, however, the writers suggested that the primary goal of keeping the sails on the ship was probably to break the blockade and save as many ships of the fleet as possible. Antony followed Cleopatra and boarded her ship, which he recognized by its characteristic purple sails, then the two fled the battle and headed for tainaron. Antony reportedly avoided talking to Cleopatra during this three-day journey, until her ladies-in-waiting in Tainaron urged him to talk to her. The Battle of Actium without Cleopatra and Antony lasted until the morning of September 3 and was followed by massive defections of Allied officers, troops, and Kings who sided with Octavian.

End of Reign and Death

While Octavian occupied the city of Athens, Mark Antony and Cleopatra arrived in the city of Barytaunion in Egypt, and there the couple parted, Antony went to Cyrene to gather more troops, while Cleopatra went to the port of Alexandria in an attempt to mislead the opposing faction and portray the activities in Greece as a victory, she was afraid that the news about the outcome of the Battle of Actium would lead to rebellion. It is uncertain whether Cleopatra then ordered the execution of Artavasdes II and sent his severed head to his rival Artavasdes I in an attempt to ally with him.

News reached Lucius Pinarius, the governor of Cyrene appointed by Mark Antony, that Octavian had won the Battle of Actium even before Antony's messengers could reach him. Pinarius ordered the execution of these apostles and then defected, sided with Octavian, and handed him the four legions under his command, which Antony wished to control. When Anthony learned of this betrayal, he decided to commit suicide, but some of his loyal staff officers intervened and prevented him and prevented his suicide. In Alexandria Antony built a secluded hut on the island of Pharos, which he named timonion, after the Athenian philosopher Timon, who was famous for his cynicism and misanthropy. Meanwhile, Herod I (who had previously advised Antony to betray Cleopatra after the Battle of Actium) traveled to the island of Rhodes to meet Octavian and announced his desire to abdicate because of his loyalty to Antony, Octavian liked his speech and sense of loyalty, so he allowed him to keep his post in Judea, which further isolated Antony and Cleopatra.

It is believed that Cleopatra by the late summer of 31 BC had begun to perceive Antony as a hindrance, so preparing to leave Egypt, Cleopatra planned to cede the rule of Egypt to her son Caesarion, move her fleet from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, and then sail to a foreign port, perhaps to India, where she could spend some time recovering. However, Cleopatra eventually abandoned these plans when malichus I (on the advice of Octavian's appointed governor Quintus Didius over Syria) managed to burn Cleopatra's fleet in revenge for his losses in the war with Herod-a war that Cleopatra had largely instigated. Cleopatra then had no other choice but to stay in Egypt and negotiate with Octavian. Cleopatra at this time began to test the power of various poisons on prisoners and even on her servants.

Cleopatra recruited Caesarion to join the ranks of the Ephebians, and bas-reliefs found on a stele in Coptos dating back to September 21, 31 BC shows that Cleopatra was then planning for her son to become the sole ruler of Egypt. At the same time Antony, to show his solidarity, summoned his son Marcus Antonius Antyllus to join the ranks of the ephebians. Antony and Cleopatra sent many letters and envoys to Octavian who was still stationed in Rhodes, however, it seems that Octavian was only answering Cleopatra's letters. Cleopatra demanded that her children inherit Egypt and Anthony be allowed to live in exile in Egypt, offered Octavian money in the future, and immediately sent him generous gifts. Octavian sent his envoy thyrsus to Cleopatra after she threatened to burn herself and burn huge amounts of her treasures and wealth inside a tomb under construction. Thyrsus advised her to kill Antony so that she would spare her life, but when Antony suspected the presence of evil intentions, he ordered the envoy to be whipped and returned to Octavian without a deal.

After lengthy negotiations that ultimately did not yield any results, Octavian set out to conquer Egypt in the spring of 30 BC, stopping at the city of St. John Dacre, and his new ally Herod supplied his army with fresh supplies. Octavian moved south and quickly captured pelusioni, while Cornelius Gallus was advancing east from Cyrene and defeated Antony's forces near barytoneion. Octavian quickly advanced to Alexandria, but Antony returned and won a small victory over Octavian's tired troops near the city of Hippodrome. However Antony's naval fleet surrendered to Octavian on 1 August 30 BC, and Antony's cavalry followed suit.

After finding Antony's body inside one of the Egyptian palaces, Cleopatra also wanted to commit suicide, but Proculeius forbade her to do so. (Painting by Jean Alberti)
Cleopatra hid in her tomb with her close companions and from there sent a message to Antony that she had committed suicide. Anthony felt despair and responded to the letter by stabbing himself in the stomach and committing suicide at the age of 53. According to the historian Plutarch, Antony was still dying when he was brought to Cleopatra at her tomb, told her before uttering his last breath that he died with honor and that she could trust Gaius proclius (Octavian's companion) more than anyone else in his entourage. It was Proclius who sneaked into Cleopatra's tomb using a ladder and detained her, preventing her from burning herself with her treasures. Cleopatra was allowed to embalm and bury Antony inside her tomb before being taken to the palace.

Octavian entered Alexandria and occupied the palace, capturing the youngest of Cleopatra's three children. According to the historian Titus Livius, when Cleopatra met Octavian, she bluntly told him:" I will not participate in the victory parade " (ancient Greek: O ο θριαμβεύσομαι, Romanized: ou triambéusomai), a phrase denoting defiance and rejection, (note: it was customary in ancient Rome to hold a large festive procession to celebrate a military victory, usually including the presentation of the victorious general or commander in the streets of the city with captured enemies, Spoils of war and other victory symbols). This statement from Cleopatra reflected her determination not to submit to humiliation or to appear as a defeated enemy in Rome, especially given her royal status as the last ruler of Egypt. Her phrase was an affirmation of her dignity and a refusal to be a spectacle of the victory of her enemy.

Octavian promised that he would keep Cleopatra alive but did not give any explanation about his plans for her kingdom. When a spy informed her that Octavian was planning to take her and her children to Rome in three days, Cleopatra prepared to commit suicide because she did not intend to appear at the Roman triumphal procession as her sister Arsenoi IV had previously appeared. It is unclear whether Cleopatra's suicide on August 10, 30 BC at the age of 39 took place inside the palace or in her tomb, it is said that she was accompanied by her servants and Charmion who also committed suicide.

Octavian was said to be outraged by this result, however, he decided to bury Cleopatra with a royal ceremony in her tomb next to Antony. Olympus (Cleopatra's doctor) did not explain the cause of her death, however, the widespread belief is that she deliberately allowed a snake or an Egyptian cobra to bite her and poison her. This account was mentioned by the historian Plutarch, who also suggested that Cleopatra used a tool known as the "knêstis" (literally translated as "spine" or "cheese grater") to inject poison by scratching, while the historian Cassius Dio stated that Cleopatra injected herself with poison using a needle, while the historian Strabo argued that she used an ointment of some kind containing poisonous substances. Although no poisonous snake was discovered next to her remains, she had small wounds on her arm that could have been caused by a needle.

Cleopatra in her last moments decided to send Caesarion away to Upper Egypt, perhaps she had plans to flee to Kushite Nubia, Ethiopia, or India. When Caesarion ascended the throne (as Ptolemy XV), his reign lasted only 18 days, as he was executed on August 29, 30 BC after returning to Alexandria on Octavian's orders under the false pretext that Octavian would allow him to become king. Octavian was influenced by the advice of the philosopher Arius Didymus that in the world there is a place for only one Caesar. With the fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the Roman province of Egypt was established, marking the end of the Hellenistic era. Octavian changed his name from Octavian to Augustus Caesar (which means venerable) in January of 27 BC and gathered the constitutional powers that made him the first Roman Emperor, inaugurating the era of the primacy of the Roman Empire.

Cleopatra's Kingdom and her role as Queen

According to the traditions of the Macedonian rulers, Cleopatra ruled Egypt and other regions such as Cyprus as an absolute monarch, acting as the sole legislator and the head of the main religious authority in her kingdom. She presided over religious ceremonies dedicated to the gods of the Egyptian and Greek polytheistic religions. She supervised the construction of many temples to the Egyptian and Greek gods, the construction of a temple for the Jews in Egypt, built the temple of the caesarian, a monument dedicated to the cult of her patron and lover Caesar.

Cleopatra was directly involved in the administrative affairs of her kingdom and worked to address crises such as famine by ordering the Royal granaries to distribute food to the starving population during the drought that occurred at the beginning of her reign. Although the command economy it managed was more an ideal than a reality, the government tried to impose price controls and tariffs, state monopolies on certain goods, fixed exchange rates of foreign currencies, and the issuance of strict laws forcing farmers and peasants to stay in their villages during the planting and harvesting seasons. Because of obvious financial problems, Cleopatra resorted to devaluing her currency, which included silver and bronze coins but did not include gold coins like those minted by some of her Ptolemaic predecessors.

Legacy

Cleopatra's three surviving children (Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, Ptolemy Philadelphus) after her suicide were sent to Rome and Octavia Minor (Octavian's sister) and the ex-wife of their father took on the role of their guardian. Both Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present at the Roman victory parade of Octavian in 29 BC, the fate of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus remained unknown after this event. Octavia arranged the engagement of Cleopatra Selene II to Juba II (son of Juba I), whose kingdom of Numidia in North Africa was turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Caesar due to Juba I's support for Pompey.

Emperor Augustus installed CAESAR II of Juba and Cleopatra Selene II after their marriage in 25 BC as new rulers of Mauretania, turning the ancient Carthaginian city of Aeolus into their new capital, renaming it Caesarea Mauretania (Cherchell, Algeria). Cleopatra Selene II brought many important scientists, artists, and advisers from her mother's Royal Court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, and soon this city became permeated with Hellenistic Greek culture. She named her son Ptolemy the Moorish in honor of their Ptolemaic family heritage.

Cleopatra Selene II died around the year 5 BC, and when Juba II died in 23/24 ad, he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy the Mauretanian. However, Ptolemy the Mauretanian was eventually executed by the Roman Emperor Caligula in 40 AD, probably on the pretext that Ptolemy the Mauretanian minted his royal coins illegally and used emblems dedicated to the Roman Emperor. Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known king of the Ptolemaic dynasty. It is worth noting that Queen Zenobia, who ruled the short-lived Kingdom of Palmyra during the third century, later claimed to be descended from Cleopatra. Remarkably, the cult dedicated to Cleopatra lasted until 373 AD, as Betsinovy, an Egyptian writer of the book of ISIS, stated that "Cleopatra's figure was covered with gold," which means that Cleopatra continued to occupy an important place in the religious or cultural practices of some individuals or groups long after her era.

Roman literature and historiography

Although almost 50 ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these works often included brief accounts of some events in her life such as the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and the propaganda launched by Augustus Caesar about her shortcomings. The Life of Antony, written by Plutarch in the first century AD, provides the most comprehensive surviving account of Cleopatra's life (although it is not considered a biography of Cleopatra). Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on primary sources in his writings such as Philotas of Amfisi, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's doctor named Olympus, as well as Quintus Delius a confidant of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Plutarch's work included both Augustus Caesar's view of Cleopatra - which became the accepted view in his time - as well as other sources including eyewitness accounts.

The Jewish-Roman historian Josephus Flavius, writing in the first century AD, provides valuable information about the life of Cleopatra through her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great. However, this work is largely based on the memoirs of Herod and the biased account of Nicholas of Damascus (the teacher of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria) before he moved to Judea to work as a consultant and historian at Herod's court. The Roman history published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early third century AD provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign despite failing to fully understand the complexities of the late Hellenistic era.

Cleopatra is rarely mentioned in the book Di Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Caesar. The writings of Cicero, who knew her personally, present an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra. Authors of the Augustan period including Virgil, Horace, Propertius, Ovid, immortalized the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime, although Virgil established the idea of Cleopatra as a romantic character and an epic melodrama. Horace considered Cleopatra's decision to end her life a courageous one, an idea that was accepted in the late Middle Ages through the works of Geoffrey Chaucer.

Historians such as Strabo, philius, Valerius Maximus, Pliny the Elder, and Appian (although they did not provide complete accounts such as Plutarch, Josephus Flavius, or Cassius Dio) provided some details about Cleopatra's life that were not preserved in other historical records. Some inscriptions on coins from the Ptolemaic era and some Egyptian papyrus documents show a glimpse of Cleopatra's point of view although this material is very limited in comparison with Roman literary works. The unfinished novel (Lipica) commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law, Juba II, offers a possible source of historical material that may have supported Cleopatra's view.

It is possible that the gender of Cleopatra contributed to her being portrayed as a minor character of no importance in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world. For example, historian Ronald SIM suggested that Cleopatra was of little importance to Caesar and that Octavian's propaganda inflated her importance to an excessive degree. Although the popular view of Cleopatra was that she was a polyamorous babe, she had only two known partners, Caesar and Antony, the two most prominent Roman figures of that period, who had a decisive role in ensuring the survival of her dynasty. Plutarch described Cleopatra as having a strong character, and charming intelligence, and was not dependent only on her physical beauty.

Cultural perception,

Cleopatra is depicted in many ancient works of art in the Egyptian style as well as in the Greek and Roman Hellenistic style. These works include full-length sculptures, busts, engravings, and minted coins, as well as carved ancient reliefs, such as those depicting Cleopatra and Antony in the Hellenistic style, exhibited today in the Altes Museum in Berlin. Contemporary depictions of Cleopatra were produced both inside and outside Ptolemaic Egypt. For example, in the temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome there was a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra, the first time a statue of a living person was placed next to a statue of a deity in a Roman temple. The statue was erected by Caesar and remained in the temple until at least the third century AD, its preservation is probably due to Caesar's patronage of him, although Augustus Caesar did not remove or destroy the works of art in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.

A life-size statue in the Roman style of Cleopatra was found near Tomba Di Nero, Rome, along the Via cassia, and today it is on display in the Pio Clementino Museum, which is part of the Vatican Museums. According to the historian Plutarch in his book (Life of Antony), the public statues of Antony were demolished by Augustus Caesar, but the statues of Cleopatra were preserved after her death. This preservation is attributed to her friend Archibius, who is said to have paid Augustus Caesar 2,000 talons to dissuade him from destroying her statues.

Scientists have been debating since the Fifties of the twentieth century whether the statue of Venus Esquiline, discovered in 1874 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome and preserved in the palace of the Conservatory of the Capitoline Museums, is a depiction of Cleopatra based on the statue's hairstyle, facial features, the apparent royal diadem worn over the head and the Egyptian bow of the Cobra wrapped around the base. Critics of this theory argue that the face in this statue is thinner than the one in the Berlin portrait and assert that Cleopatra is unlikely to be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (or the Greek Aphrodite). However, Cleopatra was depicted as the goddess Isis in an Egyptian statue, while some coins depicted her as Venus Aphrodite. And Cleopatra dressed up as Aphrodite when she met Anthony in Tarsus. It is generally believed that the statue of Venus Esquiline is a Roman copy from the middle of the first century AD of a Greek original from the first century BC of the school of Basileus.

Currencies at the reign of Cleopatra

The surviving coins from the reign of Cleopatra include samples from each Royal year spanning from 51 to 30 BC. Cleopatra is certainly the only Ptolemaic queen who issued coins in her name, and it is quite possible that she inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to put his portrait on his coins. Cleopatra was also the first foreign queen whose image appeared on the Roman coin. Coins dating from the period of her marriage to Antony and also bearing his portrait depict Cleopatra with a hooked nose and a protruding chin very similar to her husband's. These similar facial features followed an artistic tradition that represented the mutual harmony of the royal couple.

The strong, semi-masculine facial features of Cleopatra in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer and, perhaps, ideal sculptural images of her both in Egyptian and Hellenistic styles. Her male facial features on the minted coin are similar to those of her father Ptolemy XII, and probably also those of her Ptolemaic ancestor Arsinoe II (316-260 BC.M.) And even depictions of former queens such as Hatshepsut and Nefertiti. It is possible (motivated by political considerations) that the image of Antony was designed to correspond not only to her image but also to her Greek-Macedonian ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, for Antony to recognize her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.

The inscriptions on the coins were written in Greek, with the adoption of the nominal case characteristic of Roman coins instead of the additive case typical of Greek coins, in addition to placing the letters in a circular position along the edges of the coin instead of horizontally or vertically as was customary with the Greeks. These features in the coins indicate the fusion of Roman and Hellenistic culture, and probably also carry a message to its subjects, although the intent remains ambiguous for modern scholars regarding the perceived superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other. Diana Kleiner argues that Cleopatra in one of her coins minted with the double image of her husband Anthony, presented herself as more masculine than other images and more like an acceptable Roman client Queen than a Hellenistic ruler. Cleopatra had already achieved this masculine look in coins predating her relationship with Antony, such as the coins struck at the Ashkelon Mint during her brief exile to Syria and the Levant, which Joan Fletcher interprets as an attempt by Cleopatra to appear like her father and assert herself as the legitimate successor of a male Ptolemaic ruler.

Cleopatra is depicted wearing a royal diadem and a watermelon-shaped hairstyle on many coins such as the silver tetradrachma coin minted sometime after Cleopatra's marriage to Antony in 37 BC. This hairstyle paired with a diadem also appears in two preserved carved marble heads. This hairstyle with the hair pulled back in a bun is the same one in which her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsenoy II and Berenice II appeared in their coins. This hairstyle gained popularity among Roman women after Cleopatra visited Rome between 46-44 BC, but abandoned it for a more modest and austere appearance during the conservative rule of Augustus.

Among the surviving busts and heads of Cleopatra in the Greco-Roman style is a statue known as "Cleopatra Berlin" located within the collection of Berlin antiquities at the Altes Museum, the statue contains a complete nose of Cleopatra, while the statue of Cleopatra's head known as "Cleopatra Vatican" located in the Vatican Museums is damaged and the nose in it is missing. Both statues (Cleopatra Berlin and Cleopatra Vatican) have royal crowns and similar facial features, perhaps their features resembled the face of the bronze statue of Cleopatra that was located in the temple of Venus Genetrix.

Both heads date back to the middle of the first century BC, they were found in Roman villas along the Via Appia in Italy, and a statue (Cleopatra Vatican) was discovered in the villa Quintilian. Historian Francisco Pena Polo wrote that the coins of Cleopatra present her image for sure, and assures that the carved image of the statue of Cleopatra Berlin confirms that she had a similar shape where her hair was pulled back in a bun, decorated with a diadem and she had a hooked nose.

In Algeria, a third head statue of Cleopatra, which scientists consider to be original, is kept in the Archaeological Museum in Cherchell. This statue is characterized by the presence of a royal diadem and facial features similar to the heads of Berlin and the Vatican, but it has a more distinctive hairstyle, which led some to suggest that it may depict Cleopatra Cellini II, Cleopatra's daughter. In the Capitoline Museums is another statue of Cleopatra in Parian marble in which she appears wearing an Egyptian-style Eagle headdress, discovered near the temple of ISIS in Rome and dating back to the first century BC, which is either of Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian origin.

Other possible sculptural representations of Cleopatra include a statue in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, this statue in particular probably depicts a woman from Cleopatra's entourage during her visit to Rome rather than Cleopatra herself. The features of the woman in this statue are similar to the rest of the statues (including the pronounced hooked nose), but she lacks the royal crown and has a different hairstyle. However, the head of the statue preserved in the British Museum (which was originally part of a complete statue) probably represents Cleopatra at a different stage of her life, and may also have served as Cleopatra's deliberate choice to abandon the use of royal symbols (such as a diadem) to make herself more attractive to the citizens of Republican Rome. Duane W. Roller suggests that the head of the statue in the British Museum, along with those in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, and the private collection of Maurice Nahman, share facial features and hairstyles with the image of Berlin but lack the Royal diadem, and also suggests that these sculptures most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's fashionable hairstyle.

Paintings,

A fresco dating from the middle of the first century BC was found in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus (a Roman citizen) who lived in the city of Pompeius, Italy. This fresco of the second style depicts the goddess Venus holding the God of love Cupid, hung near the huge doors of the temple. This artwork may depict Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix accompanied by her son Caesarion. It is believed that the time of the painting coincided with the construction of the temple of Venus Genetrix in the forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Caesar erected a gilded statue depicting Cleopatra. It is possible that this statue served as an inspiration for her representation in various art forms, including sculptures and frescoes found in Pompeii. The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head, and her appearance strikingly resembles the statue (Cleopatra Vatican) made of marble, which shows on her left cheek fractures and Cupid's arm may have been broken. The owner of the painting put a fence around the room containing it, probably as a reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when the public depiction of Cleopatra's son was inappropriate for the New Roman regime.

Portland Vase,

The Portlan vase is a Roman glass vase dating from the reign of Augustus Caesar, preserved today in the British Museum, the vase includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Antony. This work of art depicts Cleopatra holding Anthony and pulling him towards her while the serpent (that is, the snake) rises between her legs, Eros hovers above them, and the spectator Anton (the alleged ancestor of the Antonine family) desperately looks on as he watches Anthony being led towards his tragic fate. The other side of the vase probably contains a scene of Octavia Minor being abandoned by her husband Antony but kept under surveillance by her brother Emperor Augustus Caesar. This vase was probably made before 35 BC at the time when Antony sent his wife Octavia Minor to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.

Authentic Egyptian art,

The bust preserved in the Royal Ontario Museum is a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style. It dates back to the middle of the first century BC and is perhaps the oldest depiction of Cleopatra as a goddess and a ruling pharaoh of Egypt. The statue also has clear eyes that are similar to Roman copies of sculptural works of art of the Ptolemaic era. Near Dendera, Egypt, inside the Dendera temple complex, prominent Egyptian-style images can be found adorning the outer walls of the temple of Hathor and depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as an adult and a ruling Pharaoh making offerings to the gods. It is noteworthy that the name of Caesar was engraved on the same site after the death of Cleopatra.

In the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, there is a large black basalt statue 104 cm (41 in) high, previously thought to depict Arsenoi II (wife of Ptolemy II), but recent studies have indicated that this statue most likely depicts Cleopatra as a descendant of arsenoi II, these modern studies are based on the presence of three symbols (in the form of a snake) adorning the headdress of the statue, while arsenoi II was known about her that she usually wears two symbols on her headdress to symbolize her authority over both lower and Upper Egypt. The woman depicted in the Basalt statue also holds two divided pairs of Horn of Plenty (dikeras), a feature observed on coins associated with both Arsenoi II and Cleopatra. Bernard Andrea in his book (Cleopatra and the Caesars) considers that this basalt statue (like other idealized Egyptian images of the Queen) lacks realistic facial features, and therefore does not contribute much to our understanding of Cleopatra's physical appearance. Adrian Goldsworthy adds that, despite these representations of a traditional Egyptian style, it is likely that Cleopatra was dressed in native Egyptian clothes only "perhaps for certain rituals". Instead, her usual attire was that of Greek royalty, including the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.

In the Middle Ages and early modern period,

In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture, a status shaped by theatrical representations dating back to the Renaissance as well as paintings and films. This material largely exceeds the scope and volume of existing historical literature about her from classical antiquity and had a greater impact on the general public's perception of Cleopatra than the historical novels themselves. The fourteenth-century English poet Geoffrey Chaucer in his poem placed the myth of the righteous woman Cleopatra in the context of the medieval Christian world. Geoffrey Chaucer's portrayal of Cleopatra and Anthony, her illustrious Knight engaged in noble love, has been interpreted in modern times as either a playful satire or a misogynistic satire.

Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men, depicting a life that hardly corresponded to her image as a seductress, and wrote his works partly as a reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in the Latin works de muliribus Claris and de cassibus ferrorum illustrium by the Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio of the XIV century. In his Libretto apologetico delle donne, published in 1504, the Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante was the first Italian to defend Cleopatra's reputation and criticize the moral preaching and misogyny in Boccaccio's works. Works of Islamic historiography written in Arabic covered a period of Cleopatra's reign such as Kitab (the Meadows of gold) by Al-Masudi in the tenth century, although Al-Masudi erroneously claimed that Octavian died shortly after Cleopatra's suicide.

Cleopatra appeared in miniatures in illuminated manuscripts, such as depicting her and Anthony lying in a tomb in the Gothic style by the pokikot master in 1409. The sculptural depiction of Cleopatra in the visual arts began as a nude figure trying to commit suicide with the sixteenth-century sculptors Bartolomeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria. Early prints depicting Cleopatra include designs by Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as fifteenth-century woodcuts found in illustrated editions of works by Giovanni Boccaccio.

In the Performing Arts, the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603, and the German publication of the alleged letters of Cleopatra in 1606 inspired Samuel Daniel to revise his play "Cleopatra", released in 1594, to be republished in 1607. He was followed by William Shakespeare, whose play "Antony and Cleopatra" premiered in 1608 and, relying largely on the historian Plutarch, presented a rather vulgar vision of Cleopatra in stark contrast to the Virgin Queen Elizabeth I of England. Cleopatra also appeared in operas, such as George Frideric Handel's 1724 opera "Julius Caesar in Egypt", which depicted the love affair between Caesar and Cleopatra; Domenico Cimarosa wrote an opera "Cleopatra" with similar content in 1789.

During the Victorian era in Britain, Cleopatra was closely associated with various aspects of ancient Egyptian culture, and her image was widely used in the marketing of various household products, including oil lamps, lithographs, postcards, and cigarettes. Fantasy novels such as Henry Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Theophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1838) portrayed Cleopatra as sensual and mystical Orientalism, while Egyptologist Georges Ebers's Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy. The French playwright Victorine Sardou and the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while comic shows such as the play Antony and Cleopatra by Francis Cowley Burnand presented satirical images of Cleopatra that connect her with the environment in which she lived with the modern era.

Shakespeare's play (Antony and Cleopatra) was considered canonical in the Victorian era, and its popularity led to the misconception that Lawrence's 1885 painting Alma Tadema depicts the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on board her pleasure boat in Tarsus, although Lawrence Tadema revealed in a private letter that the painting depicts a later meeting of them in Alexandria. Samuel Barber based the play on Shakespeare to produce an opera entitled Antony and Cleopatra which was staged in 1966 at the opening of the Metropolitan Opera House. In his unfinished 1825 Short Story (Egyptian nights), Alexander Pushkin published the claims of the fourth-century Roman historian Aurelius Victor, which historians had previously largely ignored, that Cleopatra prostituted men who paid with their lives for sex. Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and the Middle East, as the Qing Dynasty Chinese scholar Yin Fu wrote an extensive biography of her.

Georges Melies ' film (the grave robbery of Cleopatra (French: Cléopâtre)), a French silent horror film produced in 1899, is considered the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra. Twentieth-century Hollywood films were influenced by earlier Victorian media, helping to shape the character of Cleopatra played by actress Theda Barra in Cleopatra (1917), Claudette Colbert in Cleopatra (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor in Cleopatra (1963). In addition to portraying a "vampire" queen, Barra introduced the character of Cleopatra also incorporating familiar tropes from nineteenth-century Orientalist painting, such as authoritarian behavior mixed with dangerous and explicit female sexuality.

The character of Cleopatra performed by Claudette Colbert served as a charming model for the sale of Egyptian-themed products in department stores in the Thirties of the twentieth century, aimed at female moviegoers. Women's magazines of the early sixties provided instructions on how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the Egyptian look similar to Queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti in preparation for the film in which Elizabeth Taylor plays Cleopatra. By the end of the twentieth century, he had produced forty-three films, two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets associated with Cleopatra. As for Arabia, the Syrian actress Slava Fakhraji embodied the role of Queen Cleopatra in a series that tells the story of her life in 2010 directed by her ex-husband Wael Ramadan.

Written works,
While myths about Cleopatra persist in the popular media, important aspects of her career often go largely unnoticed such as her command of the Navy and her administrative work. Some of the publications attributed to her in the field of ancient Greek medicine are most likely the work of a doctor of the same name (Cleopatra the physician ) who lived in the late first century AD. The American writer and researcher Ingrid D. Roland highlight the phrase "Berenice called Cleopatra" mentioned by the Roman physician metrodora in the third or fourth century as possibly the result of medieval scholars mistakenly confusing the identity of Berenice and Cleopatra.

Only fragments of Cleopatra's medical and cosmetic writings remain, including those preserved by Galen. These parts contain remedies for conditions such as hair diseases, baldness, and dandruff, as well as a list of weights and measures for pharmaceutical purposes. The Greek doctor Aetius (a Roman doctor) attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul the agnatic kept her alleged instructions for dyeing and curling hair.

Ethnicity and lineage

Cleopatra belongs to the Greek-Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty whose European ancestry originates from northern Greece. Her lineage through her father Ptolemy XII goes back to two prominent companions of Alexander the great of Macedon: the general Ptolemy I the founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt, and Seleucus I the Greek Macedonian the founder of the Seleucid Empire in western Asia. Cleopatra's paternal lineage can be traced well documented, while the identity of her mother is uncertain. It is assumed that she was the fifth daughter of Cleopatra (sister of Ptolemy XII and his wife) who had previously given birth to their daughter Bernice IV.

Cleopatra I is certainly the only member of the Ptolemaic family who introduced some non-Greek ancestry into his offspring. Her mother Laodice III is the daughter of King Mithridates II, a Persian of the Mithridatic dynasty, and his wife Laodice had a mixed Greek-Persian Heritage. Antiochus III The Great (Father of Cleopatra I) was a descendant of Queen Apama, the wife of the Iranian Sogdian Seleucus I. It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with the native Egyptians. Michael Grant asserts that there is only one Egyptian mistress known to Ptolemy and no Egyptian wife known to him, also arguing that Cleopatra probably did not have any Egyptian ancestry and was self-described as Greek.

Stacy Schiff writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was uncommon for Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress. Duane W. roller suggests that Cleopatra could be the descendant of a half Greek Macedonian and half Egyptian woman from Memphis in northern Egypt belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah (a theory that has not been widely adopted in scientific circles) however, roller asserts that Cleopatra held her Greek Ptolemaic heritage in the highest esteem regardless of her pedigree. According to the British historian ernley Bradford, Cleopatra's challenge to Rome was not as an Egyptian woman, but as an educated Greek.

There is never any evidence that Cleopatra is an illegitimate child, as Roman propaganda has it. Strabo is the only ancient historian who claimed that the children of Ptolemy XII born after Berenice IV (including Cleopatra) were illegitimate. Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC a few months after Cleopatra's birth, while Ptolemy XII's younger children were born when the couple was separated. The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is evidenced by the direct lineage of Cleopatra, which, when reconstructed, is shown below.

Cleopatra V as the daughter of Ptolemy X and Bernice III, this would make her the cousin of her husband Ptolemy XII, and it is also possible that Cleopatra V is the daughter of Ptolemy IX, in this case, she becomes the wife of Ptolemy XII and his sister. Confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI; she may have been Ptolemy XII's daughter. Historians Fletcher and John Whitehorn assert that these suspicions could point to Cleopatra V's death in 69 BC rather than her later appearance as co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC, which happened when Ptolemy XII was exiled to Rome.